Passage 1: Irish Museums and the Art of Australia
Museums play a decisive role in shaping how national art traditions are interpreted, preserved, and communicated to the public. In Ireland, museums have historically functioned as custodians of cultural memory, with a strong emphasis on heritage, identity, and the political circumstances that shaped artistic expression. Australian museums, by contrast, have developed within a post-colonial context that increasingly prioritises plural narratives, particularly those of Indigenous communities whose artistic traditions long predate European settlement.
Irish museums traditionally centred on fine art forms such as painting and sculpture that reflected national revival movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These institutions often framed art as a vehicle for asserting cultural autonomy during periods of political struggle. As a result, curatorial practices tended to privilege works that aligned with a coherent national narrative, sometimes at the expense of experimental or international influences. Only in recent decades have Irish museums begun to adopt more outward-looking approaches, incorporating global perspectives and contemporary practices into their collections.
In Australia, museum curation has followed a markedly different trajectory. For much of the twentieth century, Indigenous art was marginalised or displayed as anthropological artefacts rather than as works of fine art. This distinction reinforced colonial hierarchies that separated European artistic traditions from Indigenous cultural production. However, growing public recognition of Indigenous rights has prompted major institutions to reassess these practices. Today, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artworks are increasingly presented as central to Australian art history rather than as peripheral additions.
Despite these developments, challenges persist in both countries. Irish museums face criticism for the underrepresentation of women and minority artists, while Australian institutions continue to grapple with ethical questions surrounding ownership, repatriation, and the commercialisation of Indigenous art. Moreover, funding constraints in both nations have influenced exhibition choices, often favouring popular or commercially viable displays over academically rigorous but less accessible content.
Nevertheless, museums in Ireland and Australia are undergoing gradual transformation. Collaborative exhibitions, community-led curation, and digital initiatives have begun to redefine the relationship between institutions and audiences. These changes suggest that museums are shifting away from authoritative narratives toward more inclusive and dialogic models of cultural representation.
Questions 1–4: True / False / Not Given
1..Irish museums historically used art to reinforce political independence movements.
2. Experimental art was consistently encouraged in Irish museum collections throughout the twentieth century.
3. Indigenous Australian art was once displayed mainly as cultural evidence rather than artistic expression.
4. All Australian museums have fully resolved debates over the ownership of Indigenous artworks.
Questions 5–8: Matching Information
Match each statement with the correct paragraph A–E.
(You may use any paragraph more than once.)
5. A shift towards more inclusive curatorial practices
6. Financial limitations affecting exhibition decisions
7. Art being framed as part of a national political identity
8. Reclassification of Indigenous art within mainstream art history
Questions 9–11: Sentence Completion
Complete the sentences using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.
Irish museums initially prioritised art that supported a unified __________ narrative.
Indigenous Australian artworks were previously categorised as __________ artefacts.
Digital initiatives are helping museums redefine their relationship with __________.
Questions 12–13: Multiple Choice
12. What is the main contrast drawn between Irish and Australian museums?
A. Their architectural design
B. Their funding sources
C. Their historical approaches to national identity and inclusion
D. Their use of technology
13. Which factor affects museums in both Ireland and Australia?
A. International censorship
B. Lack of public interest
C. Ethical concerns about colonial history
D. Government control of exhibitions
Passage 2 Flood Control in the United States
Flooding has long posed a significant challenge to communities across the United States, owing to the country’s varied geography and climate. From hurricanes along the Gulf Coast to snowmelt-driven river floods in the Midwest, flood risks differ widely by region. Historically, American flood management focused on large-scale engineering solutions, particularly the construction of dams, levees, and floodwalls designed to control water flow and protect urban centres.
The expansion of such infrastructure accelerated during the twentieth century, especially after devastating floods such as the Mississippi River flood of 1927. Federal agencies were granted greater authority to design and manage flood-control systems, often prioritising economic development and agricultural expansion. While these structures reduced flood frequency in many areas, critics argue that they created a false sense of security, encouraging settlement in flood-prone zones.
In recent decades, environmental scientists have questioned the long-term effectiveness of rigid flood-control structures. Rivers constrained by levees lose access to their natural floodplains, which historically absorbed excess water. As a result, when flooding does occur, it can be more severe and destructive. Furthermore, dams disrupt sediment transport, leading to erosion downstream and reduced fertility in delta regions.
Climate change has intensified these concerns. Increased rainfall variability and more frequent extreme weather events have placed additional stress on ageing infrastructure. Many dams and levees were designed based on historical flood data that may no longer reflect current or future conditions. As maintenance costs rise, authorities face difficult decisions about whether to reinforce existing structures or pursue alternative approaches.
Consequently, a shift toward integrated flood management has emerged. This strategy combines traditional engineering with non-structural measures such as wetland restoration, land-use regulation, and improved forecasting systems. Supporters claim that allowing rivers greater freedom to flood designated areas can reduce damage while enhancing ecological resilience. However, implementing such approaches often requires relocating communities, which remains politically and socially contentious.
Questions 14–18: True / False / Not Given
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage? Write TRUE, FALSE, or NOT GIVEN.
14. Flood risks in the United States are uniform across all regions.
15. Early flood-control efforts in the US mainly relied on engineered structures.
16. The Mississippi River flood of 1927 directly caused the abandonment of dam construction.
17. Levees can increase the severity of floods under certain conditions.
18. All existing flood-control infrastructure in the US has been updated to reflect climate change projections.
Questions 19–22: Matching Information
Match each statement with the correct paragraph A–E.
19. Criticism that flood defences encouraged risky human settlement
20. The impact of climate change on the reliability of flood-control systems
21. Environmental consequences of restricting natural river behaviour
22. The emergence of mixed flood-management strategies
Questions 23–26: Sentence Completion
Complete the sentences below using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.
23. Early flood-control policies often supported agricultural and __________ expansion.
24. Dams interfere with the movement of __________ along rivers.
25. Some flood structures were designed using outdated __________ data.
26. Relocating residents is described as __________ and politically sensitive.
Passage 3: The Origin of Language
The question of how human language originated has intrigued scholars for centuries, yet it remains one of the most contentious debates in cognitive science. Unlike written systems, which leave archaeological traces, spoken language leaves no direct physical evidence, forcing researchers to rely on indirect indicators such as fossil anatomy, comparative linguistics, and neurological studies.
One influential theory proposes that language evolved gradually from primitive vocalisations used by early hominins to coordinate social activities. According to this view, simple sounds associated with specific actions slowly developed into more complex symbolic systems. Supporters of this hypothesis often point to modern primates, whose vocal repertoires, though limited, demonstrate a basic capacity for meaning-driven communication.
In contrast, other scholars argue that language emerged abruptly as a result of a genetic mutation that reorganised the human brain. This perspective suggests that language did not evolve incrementally but appeared once cognitive capacity reached a critical threshold. Proponents highlight the uniqueness of syntactic structures in human language, noting that no animal communication system exhibits comparable grammatical complexity.
A related debate concerns whether language originated primarily as a tool for communication or for internal thought. Some linguists maintain that language initially served social bonding and cooperation, enabling larger groups to function effectively. Others contend that language evolved as a mechanism for organising complex thought, with communication emerging as a secondary function.
Recent advances in neuroscience have added nuance to the discussion. Brain imaging studies reveal that language processing involves multiple regions rather than a single “language centre,” implying that language may have developed by integrating pre-existing cognitive systems. However, critics caution that neurological evidence alone cannot establish causation, as modern brain structures may differ significantly from those of early humans.
Despite decades of research, no single theory has achieved universal acceptance. Many researchers now adopt a hybrid approach, proposing that language emerged through a combination of biological evolution, social necessity, and cognitive innovation. The absence of definitive evidence ensures that the origin of language will remain an open question for the foreseeable future.
🧠Questions 27–31: Yes / No / Not Given
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer?
Write
YES – if the statement agrees with the writer
NO – if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN – if it is impossible to say
27. Spoken language provides fewer archaeological clues than written language.
28. Early hominins relied exclusively on gestures before developing vocal language.
29. All researchers agree that primate communication systems influenced human language.
30. Some scholars believe grammar distinguishes human language from animal communication.
31. Brain imaging alone can conclusively explain how language originated.
Questions 32–35: Matching Sentence Endings
Match the sentence beginnings (32–35) with the correct endings A–G.
32. The gradualist theory suggests that language
33. Supporters of the mutation theory argue that language
34. One disagreement among linguists concerns whether language
35. A hybrid approach proposes that language
Endings
A. developed through interaction between biological and social factors
B. evolved primarily to structure internal reasoning
C. appeared suddenly following a neurological change
D. progressed from simple sound-based communication
E. can be fully explained by fossil evidence
F. originated exclusively for cooperative hunting
G. is identical across all human societies
Questions 36–38: Summary Completion
Complete the summary using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.
Researchers face difficulty studying language origins because spoken language leaves no
36. __________ evidence. Some theories focus on gradual development, while others argue for a sudden
37. __________ shift in human cognition. Increasingly, scholars support explanations that combine biological evolution with
38. __________ influences.
Questions 39–40: Multiple Choice (Choose TWO answers)
Which TWO points does the writer make about research into language origins?
A. It depends heavily on indirect forms of evidence
B. It has conclusively identified one dominant theory
C. It increasingly incorporates findings from neuroscience
D. It rejects the relevance of animal communication studies
E. It proves language emerged solely for communication
✅ Answers with Explanations
1–4 True / False / Not Given
TRUE
→ Paragraph 2 links Irish art directly to political and cultural autonomy.
FALSE
→ Experimental art was not consistently encouraged; it was often excluded.
TRUE
→ Paragraph 3 clearly states Indigenous art was treated as anthropological artefacts.
FALSE
→ Paragraph 4 says challenges persist, meaning issues are unresolved.
5–8 Matching Information
Paragraph E
→ Discusses inclusive, dialogic models and community-led curation.
Paragraph D
→ Mentions funding constraints shaping exhibition choices.
Paragraph B
→ Describes art used to assert national identity in Ireland.
Paragraph C
→ Explains how Indigenous art is now central to Australian art history.
9–11 Sentence Completion
national
→ “a coherent national narrative” (Paragraph 2)
anthropological
→ Exact wording in Paragraph 3
audiences
→ Paragraph 5 refers to redefining relationships with audiences
12–13 Multiple Choice
C
→ The passage contrasts identity-driven Irish museums with inclusion-focused Australian ones.
C
→ Both face ethical questions linked to colonial history and representation.
14. FALSE
👉 The passage states flood risks “differ widely by region.”
15. TRUE
👉 Paragraph 1 clearly says early management focused on dams, levees, and floodwalls.
16. FALSE
👉 The flood led to more infrastructure, not abandonment.
17. TRUE
👉 Paragraph 3 explains floods can become “more severe and destructive.”
18. FALSE
👉 The text says many structures were designed using old data and may no longer be suitable.
Matching Information
19. Paragraph B
👉 “Created a false sense of security, encouraging settlement.”
20. Paragraph D
👉 Discusses climate change, rainfall variability, and outdated design assumptions.
21. Paragraph C
👉 Explains floodplains, sediment disruption, and ecological damage.
22. Paragraph E
👉 Describes integrated flood management combining multiple approaches.
Sentence Completion
23. economic
👉 “Prioritising economic development and agricultural expansion.”
24. sediment
👉 “Dams disrupt sediment transport.”
25. historical
👉 “Designed based on historical flood data.”
26. socially contentious
👉 Exact phrase used in the final paragraph.
