IELTS 31 Jan 2026 Academic Reading
PASSAGE 1 The Origins of Mathematics
Mathematics is often regarded as a universal language, yet its origins are deeply rooted in the practical needs and cultural contexts of early human societies. Long before mathematics became a formal academic discipline, numerical thinking emerged as a tool for survival, trade, and social organisation.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest forms of mathematical activity involved basic counting and measurement. Prehistoric tally marks carved into bones and stones indicate attempts to track quantities such as livestock, days, or resources. These rudimentary systems did not rely on abstract numbers but instead used physical representations to record information.
As human societies became more complex, so too did their mathematical requirements. The development of agriculture created a need to measure land, predict seasonal cycles, and manage food storage. Early farming communities used simple geometry to divide fields and arithmetic to calculate yields. In this sense, mathematics evolved directly in response to environmental and economic pressures.
One of the earliest known numerical systems was developed in Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. The Sumerians introduced a base-60 system, remnants of which remain today in the way time and angles are measured. Clay tablets from this period reveal sophisticated calculations related to trade, taxation, and construction, suggesting that mathematics had become an essential administrative tool.
In ancient Egypt, mathematics served a primarily practical function. Mathematical papyri show methods for calculating areas, volumes, and proportions, particularly in relation to architecture and irrigation. These techniques were crucial for constructing monuments and managing the annual flooding of the Nile. Unlike later Greek mathematics, Egyptian approaches emphasised procedural methods rather than theoretical proofs.
A significant shift occurred in ancient Greece, where mathematics began to be studied as an abstract discipline. Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras and Euclid sought to explain numerical relationships through logical reasoning and deductive proof. This emphasis on theory marked a departure from earlier, utilitarian traditions and laid the foundations for mathematics as a formal science.
However, the development of mathematics was not limited to the ancient Mediterranean. Independent mathematical traditions emerged in China, India, and the Islamic world. Indian scholars made critical advances in algebra and introduced the concept of zero as a number, while Chinese mathematicians developed methods for solving linear equations. During the Islamic Golden Age, scholars preserved Greek texts and expanded upon them, contributing significantly to algebra, trigonometry, and numerical notation.
The transmission of mathematical knowledge across cultures was often facilitated by trade, conquest, and translation movements. Rather than progressing in isolation, mathematics evolved through continuous exchange and adaptation. This interconnected development challenges the notion that mathematics followed a single linear path of advancement.
Modern mathematics, with its high level of abstraction, can therefore be seen as the cumulative result of thousands of years of problem-solving across diverse societies. While contemporary mathematical research may appear detached from everyday concerns, its origins remain firmly grounded in the practical challenges faced by early human communities.
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QUESTIONS 1–7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?
Write:
TRUE – if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE – if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN – if there is no information on this
1. Early humans used mathematics mainly for artistic expression.
2. Prehistoric tally marks represented abstract numerical concepts.
3. Agricultural development increased the demand for mathematical skills.
4. The Sumerian number system still influences modern measurement.
5. Egyptian mathematics focused more on theory than application.
6. Greek mathematicians introduced logical proof into mathematics.
7. Mathematics developed independently in only one region of the world.
QUESTIONS 8–13
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
8. Early counting systems used __________ representations rather than abstract numbers.
9. Mathematics helped early societies manage trade and __________.
10. The Egyptian mathematical approach relied on __________ methods.
11. Greek mathematics marked a move away from purely __________ traditions.
12. Indian scholars introduced the concept of __________ as a number.
13. Mathematical knowledge spread through trade, conquest, and __________ movements.
PASSAGE 2 Visual Space Tourism
For decades, space exploration was limited to trained astronauts and government-funded missions. However, recent technological advances and private investment have led to the emergence of space tourism, a sector that promises to offer civilians visual access to space without the demands of full orbital travel. Among these developments, visual space tourism has gained particular attention.
Visual space tourism refers to experiences that allow individuals to observe Earth and outer space from high altitudes, typically through suborbital flights, stratospheric balloons, or simulated environments. Unlike traditional space travel, these experiences do not involve extended time in orbit or complex scientific tasks. Instead, they focus on providing panoramic views of the planet and a brief sensation of weightlessness.
Supporters argue that visual space tourism represents a significant step in making space more accessible. Suborbital flights, for example, reach the edge of space at altitudes where the curvature of the Earth becomes visible. Participants often describe a profound emotional response, sometimes referred to as the “overview effect,” characterised by a heightened awareness of Earth’s fragility and interconnectedness.
Despite these claims, critics question whether visual space tourism offers meaningful value beyond personal entertainment. The high cost of participation means that such experiences remain accessible only to a small, wealthy segment of the population. As a result, some argue that the industry reinforces social inequality rather than promoting widespread engagement with space exploration.
Environmental concerns also feature prominently in debates surrounding visual space tourism. Rocket launches and high-altitude flights contribute to carbon emissions and atmospheric pollution. Although companies involved in the sector emphasise technological improvements and future sustainability goals, environmental groups remain sceptical about the long-term ecological impact of frequent commercial launches.
Another area of debate involves the scientific contribution of visual space tourism. Unlike government-led missions, which are designed around research objectives, tourism-focused flights prioritise passenger experience. While some operators have proposed incorporating basic data collection or educational components, critics argue that these additions are largely symbolic and do not justify the resources consumed.
Advocates counter that visual space tourism can indirectly support scientific progress. Revenue generated from tourism may be reinvested into research and development, lowering costs for future missions. Furthermore, increased public interest in space could translate into greater political and financial support for scientific programmes.
Regulation presents an additional challenge. The rapid growth of private space companies has outpaced existing legal frameworks, leading to uncertainty over safety standards, liability, and airspace management. Governments are now faced with the task of balancing innovation with public safety and environmental responsibility.
Looking ahead, most analysts agree that visual space tourism is unlikely to replace traditional space exploration. Instead, it is expected to coexist alongside scientific missions, serving a commercial and experiential role. Whether its broader benefits will outweigh its economic and environmental costs remains an open question.
QUESTIONS 14–20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the passage?
Write:
TRUE – if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE – if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN – if there is no information on this
14. Visual space tourism requires participants to complete astronaut training.
15. Suborbital flights allow passengers to see the curvature of the Earth.
16. All participants experience the overview effect.
17. Visual space tourism is affordable for most people.
18. Environmental organisations fully support space tourism initiatives.
19. Tourism-focused flights are mainly designed for scientific research.
20. Governments are struggling to regulate private space tourism companies.
QUESTIONS 21–26
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Visual space tourism focuses on observation rather than 21.__________ travel.
Critics argue that the industry reinforces social 22.__________.
Rocket launches contribute to carbon emissions and atmospheric 23.__________.
Some educational activities included in tourism flights are considered 24. __________.
Revenue from tourism may be used to fund future 25.__________.
Visual space tourism is expected to 26.__________ with scientific missions.
PASSAGE 3 All Is the Family
The concept of “family” has never been static. While it is often assumed to refer to a stable and universal social unit, historical and sociological research suggests that family structures have varied widely across cultures and periods. What is considered a normal or ideal family arrangement in one society may be viewed as unconventional in another.
In many pre-industrial societies, extended families formed the core social unit. Multiple generations commonly lived together, sharing economic responsibilities and childcare duties. This arrangement provided practical advantages, particularly in agricultural communities where labour demands were high and social welfare systems were absent.
The industrial revolution marked a significant shift in family organisation. As work moved away from the home and into factories and offices, smaller nuclear families became more common. Urbanisation limited living space, while wage-based employment reduced reliance on extended kin networks. As a result, households increasingly consisted of parents and their children rather than wider family groups.
In the twentieth century, further transformations occurred. Rising divorce rates, increased female participation in the workforce, and changing social attitudes contributed to the diversification of family forms. Single-parent households, blended families, and cohabiting couples without marriage became more visible and socially accepted in many parts of the world.
Sociologists emphasise that these changes do not necessarily indicate a decline in the importance of family. Instead, they argue that family functions—such as emotional support, socialisation, and economic cooperation—have adapted to new circumstances. From this perspective, the family is seen less as a fixed structure and more as a flexible social institution.
However, some commentators express concern about the weakening of traditional family bonds. They argue that smaller household sizes and increased geographic mobility have reduced intergenerational contact, potentially leading to social isolation among the elderly and a loss of shared values.
Cross-cultural research further complicates the debate. In many non-Western societies, extended family systems continue to play a central role despite economic modernisation. Remittances, shared childcare, and strong obligations to kin remain common, challenging the assumption that nuclear families represent a universal endpoint of social development.
Legal and policy frameworks also shape family life. Tax systems, inheritance laws, and welfare policies can encourage or discourage particular family arrangements. For example, state support for childcare may enable dual-income households, while housing policies can influence whether multiple generations live together.
In contemporary discourse, the definition of family has expanded to include same-sex parents, chosen families, and non-biological caregiving relationships. Advocates argue that recognising diverse family forms reflects social reality and promotes inclusion. Critics, however, contend that excessive flexibility undermines social stability.
Most researchers agree that no single family model can adequately address the needs of all societies. Instead, family structures should be understood as dynamic responses to economic, cultural, and political conditions rather than as indicators of moral progress or decline.
QUESTIONS 27–31
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer?
Write:
YES – if the statement agrees with the writer
NO – if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN – if there is no information on this
27. The idea of family has remained unchanged throughout history.
28. Extended families were common in agricultural societies.
29. Industrialisation reduced dependence on wider family networks.
30. All societies have shifted from extended to nuclear family models.
31. Modern family diversity proves that family is no longer important.
QUESTIONS 32–35
Multiple Choice
Choose the correct letter A, B, C, or D.
32. What was one effect of industrialisation on family structure?
A. Families became economically independent of paid work
B. Extended families increased in urban areas
C. Nuclear families became more common
D. Family size remained unchanged
33. According to sociologists, modern family changes mainly show that families have:
A. lost their social function
B. adapted to new conditions
C. weakened beyond repair
D. become less emotional
34. Why do some commentators worry about modern family trends?
A. They increase government spending
B. They reduce cultural diversity
C. They weaken intergenerational contact
D. They discourage marriage completely
35. Why is cross-cultural research important in the discussion of family?
A. It proves Western family models are superior
B. It shows economic growth eliminates extended families
C. It challenges assumptions about universal family patterns
D. It promotes uniform legal systems
QUESTIONS 36–40
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Family structures have changed in response to industrialisation, urbanisation, and shifting social attitudes.
While nuclear families became more common in industrial societies, extended families continue to play a key role in many (36) __________ societies.
Sociologists argue that family functions such as emotional support and (37) __________ cooperation have adapted rather than disappeared.
Some critics believe modern trends may lead to social isolation, particularly among the (38) __________.
Government policies, including welfare and (39) __________ laws, can influence how families are organised.
Overall, researchers stress that family structures are (40) __________ and shaped by wider social forces.
ANSWERS WITH EXPLANATIONS
Questions 1–7
1. FALSE
The passage states mathematics emerged for survival, trade, and organisation — not art.
2. FALSE
Tally marks were physical representations, not abstract numbers.
3. TRUE
Agriculture required land measurement, seasonal prediction, and yield calculation.
4. TRUE
The base-60 system still affects time and angle measurement today.
5. FALSE
Egyptian mathematics focused on practical procedures, not theory.
6. TRUE
Greek mathematicians emphasised deductive proof and logical reasoning.
7. FALSE
Multiple independent traditions developed in India, China, and the Islamic world.
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Questions 8–13
8. physical
Direct phrase: “used physical representations”.
9. taxation
Mentioned with trade and administration in Mesopotamia.
10. procedural
Egyptian mathematics relied on procedural, not theoretical, methods.
11. utilitarian
Greek mathematics moved away from purely utilitarian traditions.
12. zero
Indian scholars introduced zero as a number.
13. translation
Knowledge spread via “translation movements”.
14. FALSE
Participants do not need astronaut training; experiences avoid complex tasks.
15. TRUE
Suborbital flights reach altitudes where Earth’s curvature is visible.
16. NOT GIVEN
The passage says participants often describe this effect, not all.
17. FALSE
High cost limits access to wealthy individuals.
18. FALSE
Environmental groups remain sceptical, not supportive.
19. FALSE
Tourism flights prioritise passenger experience, not research.
20. TRUE
Legal frameworks have not kept pace, creating regulatory difficulty.
Questions 21–26
21. orbital
Visual tourism avoids full orbital travel.
22. inequality
Critics argue it reinforces social inequality.
23. pollution
Mentioned directly alongside emissions.
24. symbolic
Educational elements are described as symbolic.
25. research
Revenue may be reinvested into research and development.
26. coexist
It is expected to coexist with scientific missions.
27. NO
The passage states family has never been static.
28. YES
Extended families were common in agricultural societies.
29. YES
Industrialisation reduced reliance on extended kin networks.
30. NO
Non-Western societies often retain extended family systems.
31. NO
The writer says family importance has adapted, not declined.
Questions 32–35 (MCQs)
32. C
Industrialisation led to smaller, nuclear households.
33. B
Sociologists argue families have adapted to new conditions.
34. C
Concern centres on reduced intergenerational contact.
35. C
Cross-cultural research challenges the idea of a single universal family model.
Questions 36–40 (Summary Completion)
36. non-Western
Extended families remain central in many non-Western societies.
37. economic
Economic cooperation is explicitly mentioned.
38. elderly
Critics fear isolation among the elderly.
39. inheritance
Inheritance laws influence family arrangements.
40. dynamic
Families are described as dynamic responses to conditions.
